In England and Wales, adults have a right to change their name, and the law does not say much more than that. There is no Act of Parliament that sets out how to do it. The right comes from common law: you can call yourself what you like, as long as you are not doing it to deceive or defraud anyone.
So where do deed polls come in? They are about proof, not permission.
What a deed poll does in law
A deed poll is a legal deed in which you declare that you have given up your old name and will use your new one for all purposes. It does not make the change lawful, because the change was already lawful. What it does is give you a formal, signed and witnessed record of the change, which is what organisations need before they will update your records.
For a deed to be valid it has to be signed and witnessed. In practice, organisations expect a deed poll to be signed in front of two adult witnesses who are not close relatives, and that is the standard a deed poll from this site is built to. GOV.UK says anyone aged 16 or over can make their own deed poll in this way, without a solicitor or any application. Is a deed poll legally binding? goes into more detail.
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Enrolment and the 1994 regulations
The one part of name change law that is written down in detail is enrolment. The Enrolment of Deeds (Change of Name) Regulations 1994 let you put a deed poll on public record at the High Court, after which it is published in The Gazette. Enrolment is optional, costs £53.05 and has an age limit of 18 for adults. It does not make your name change any more legal. See enrolled vs unenrolled deed polls.
Children
Children are where the law is strictest. Under the Children Act 1989, where a court order sets out who a child lives with, nobody can change the child's surname without the written consent of everyone with parental responsibility, or the court's permission. The courts have made clear the same applies in practice even without an order: everyone with parental responsibility should agree, and if they do not, the change needs a court order. GOV.UK says to try to reach agreement first and then apply for a specific issue order if you cannot. Young people aged 16 or 17 can make their own deed poll. See a deed poll for a child.
The limits
You can choose almost any name, but not quite any. The Passport Office will not accept a name that may cause offence, and GOV.UK says a new name must be pronounceable and must not contain numbers, symbols or punctuation, apart from hyphens and apostrophes in established names. Organisations can refuse to record a name they cannot handle.
A new name also cannot be used to escape the law. It does not cancel debts, court orders or contracts, and organisations keep your old and new names linked. Registered sex offenders must tell the police within three days of using a new name under the Sexual Offences Act 2003, and failing to do so is a criminal offence. If you have a criminal record, it follows you to the new name.
Marriage, civil partnership and divorce
Taking a spouse's or civil partner's surname is a long-standing custom rather than a legal requirement, and nobody has to do it. Organisations accept a marriage or civil partnership certificate as evidence of that change, which is why no deed poll is needed. Anything beyond a straight swap, such as a double-barrelled name, needs a deed poll. See changing your name after marriage.
Scotland and Northern Ireland
Scotland has its own legal system and its own approach: people born or adopted there can have a change of name recorded by National Records of Scotland. Deed polls are also used in Northern Ireland. Our guides to Scotland and Northern Ireland cover the differences.